Temperatures in the corona — the tenuous, outermost layer of the solar atmosphere — spike upwards of 2 million degrees Fahrenheit, while just 1,000 miles below, the underlying surface simmers at a balmy 10,000 F. How the Sun manages this feat remains one of the greatest unanswered questions in astrophysics; scientists call it the coronal heating problem. A new, landmark mission, NASA’s Parker Solar Probe — scheduled to launch no earlier than Aug. 11, 2018 — will fly through the corona itself, seeking clues to its behavior and offering the chance for scientists to solve this mystery.
From Earth, as we see it in visible light, the Sun’s appearance — quiet, unchanging — belies the life and drama of our nearest star. Its turbulent surface is rocked by eruptions and intense bursts of radiation, which hurl solar material at incredible speeds to every corner of the solar system. This solar activity can trigger space weather events that have the potential to disrupt radio communications, harm satellites and astronauts, and at their most severe, interfere with power grids.
Above the surface, the corona extends for millions of miles and roils with plasma, gases superheated so much that they separate into an electric flow of ions and free electrons. Eventually, it continues outward as the solar wind, a supersonic stream of plasma permeating the entire solar system. And so, it is that humans live well within the extended atmosphere of our Sun. To fully understand the corona and all its secrets is to understand not only the star that powers life on Earth, but also, the very space around us.
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Something mysterious is going on at the Sun. In defiance of all logic, its atmosphere gets much, much hotter the farther it stretches from the Sun’s blazing surface.
Temperatures in the corona — the Sun’s outer atmosphere — spike to 3 million degrees Fahrenheit, while just 1,000 miles below, the underlying surface simmers at a balmy 10,000 F. How the Sun manages this feat is a mystery that dates back nearly 150 years, and remains one of the greatest unanswered questions in astrophysics. Scientists call it the coronal heating problem.
Watch the video to learn how astronomers first discovered evidence for this mystery during an eclipse in the 1800s, and what scientists today think could explain it.
Music credits: 'Developing Over Time' by Ben Niblett [PRS], Jon Cotton [PRS], 'Eternal Circle' by Laurent Dury [SACEM], ‘Starlight Andromeda' by Ben Niblett [PRS], Jon Cotton [PRS]
Coronal spectrum image credit: Constantine Emmanouilidi
Complete transcript available.
Watch this video on the NASA Goddard YouTube channel.
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An abridged version about the corona, the Sun's outer atmosphere.
Music credits: 'Developing Over Time' by Ben Niblett [PRS], Jon Cotton [PRS], 'Eternal Circle' by Laurent Dury [SACEM]
Complete transcript available.
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Credits: NASA/JAXA/Hinode", "items": [ { "id": 246091, "type": "media", "extra_data": null, "title": null, "caption": null, "instance": { "id": 405624, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a012900/a012903/ConvectiveCells.gif", "filename": "ConvectiveCells.gif", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "GIFA closeup of the Sun’s convective, or boiling, motion, with a small sunspot forming on the right from Hinode, a collaboration between NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The outer layers of the Sun are constantly boiling and roil with mechanical energy. This fluid motion generates complex magnetic fields that extend far up into the corona.Credits: NASA/JAXA/Hinode", "width": 1041, "height": 1041, "pixels": 1083681 } } ], "extra_data": {} }, { "id": 326027, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12903/#media_group_326027", "widget": "Single image", "title": "", "caption": "", "description": "GIF optimized for Twitter
The corona - the Sun's outer atmosphere - is several hundred times hotter than the Sun's surface. That’s the opposite of what happens with a fire, when it gets cooler the farther away you get.
", "items": [ { "id": 246092, "type": "media", "extra_data": null, "title": null, "caption": null, "instance": { "id": 405625, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a012900/a012903/Fire.gif", "filename": "Fire.gif", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "GIF optimized for TwitterThe corona - the Sun's outer atmosphere - is several hundred times hotter than the Sun's surface. That’s the opposite of what happens with a fire, when it gets cooler the farther away you get. ", "width": 1920, "height": 1080, "pixels": 2073600 } } ], "extra_data": {} }, { "id": 326028, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12903/#media_group_326028", "widget": "Single image", "title": "", "caption": "", "description": "GIF optimized for Twitter
The Sun's surface is 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit while the corona - the Sun's outer atmosphere - is several hundred times hotter.", "items": [ { "id": 246093, "type": "media", "extra_data": null, "title": null, "caption": null, "instance": { "id": 405626, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a012900/a012903/Corona.gif", "filename": "Corona.gif", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "GIF optimized for TwitterThe Sun's surface is 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit while the corona - the Sun's outer atmosphere - is several hundred times hotter.", "width": 1920, "height": 1080, "pixels": 2073600 } } ], "extra_data": {} }, { "id": 326029, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12903/#media_group_326029", "widget": "Single image", "title": "", "caption": "", "description": "GIF optimized for Twitter
The corona extends for millions of miles and continues outward as the solar wind, which bathes Earth and the entire solar system.", "items": [ { "id": 246094, "type": "media", "extra_data": null, "title": null, "caption": null, "instance": { "id": 405627, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a012900/a012903/Corona2.gif", "filename": "Corona2.gif", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "GIF optimized for TwitterThe corona extends for millions of miles and continues outward as the solar wind, which bathes Earth and the entire solar system.", "width": 1920, "height": 1080, "pixels": 2073600 } } ], "extra_data": {} } ], "studio": "GMS", "funding_sources": [ "PAO" ], "credits": [ { "role": "Producer", "people": [ { "name": "Joy Ng", "employer": "USRA" } ] }, { "role": "Writer", "people": [ { "name": "Kathalina Tran", "employer": "SGT" } ] }, { "role": "Scientist", "people": [ { "name": "Eric Christian", "employer": "NASA/HQ" }, { "name": "Nour Raouafi", "employer": "Johns Hopkins University/APL" }, { "name": "James A. Klimchuk", "employer": "NASA" }, { "name": "Ryan Milligan", "employer": "University of Glasgow" }, { "name": "Sten Odenwald", "employer": "NASA/GSFC" }, { "name": "Adrian Daw", "employer": "NASA/GSFC" } ] }, { "role": "Data visualizer", "people": [ { "name": "Tom Bridgman", "employer": "Global Science and Technology, Inc." } ] }, { "role": "Animator", "people": [ { "name": "Joy Ng", "employer": "USRA" }, { "name": "Walt Feimer", "employer": "KBR Wyle Services, LLC" }, { "name": "Michael Lentz", "employer": "USRA" }, { "name": "Kathalina Tran", "employer": "SGT" } ] } ], "missions": [], "series": [ "Narrated Movies" ], "tapes": [], "papers": [], "datasets": [], "nasa_science_categories": [ "Sun" ], "keywords": [ "Bengt Edlen", "Corona", "Coronal Heating", "HDTV", "Heliophysics", "History", "Parker Solar Probe", "Solar Wind", "Space Weather" ], "recommended_pages": [], "related": [ { "id": 13282, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/13282/", "page_type": "Produced Video", "title": "5 New Discoveries from NASA's Parker Solar Probe", "description": "Music Credit: Smooth as Glass by The Freeharmonic OrchestraWatch this video on the NASA Goddard YouTube channel.Complete transcript available. || parkerscience.thumb.jpg (1920x1080) [731.2 KB] || parkerscience.thumb_thm.png (80x40) [6.8 KB] || parkerscience.thumb_searchweb.png (320x180) [87.7 KB] || 13282_ParkerFirstScienceMASTER.APR1080.mov (1920x1080) [3.2 GB] || 13282_ParkerFirstScience.mp4 (1920x1080) [246.1 MB] || 13282_ParkerFirstScience.YouTube1080.mp4 (1920x1080) [387.1 MB] || 13282_ParkerFirstScience_Mobile1080.mp4 (1920x1080) [194.5 MB] || 13282_ParkerFirstScience_Twitter1080.mp4 (1920x1080) [53.4 MB] || 13282_ParkerFirstScience.YouTube1080.webm (1920x1080) [26.9 MB] || 13282_ParkerFirstScience_Twitter1080.en_US.srt [4.5 KB] || 13282_ParkerFirstScience_Twitter1080.en_US.vtt [4.5 KB] || ", "release_date": "2019-12-04T13:00:00-05:00", "update_date": "2023-05-03T13:45:27.822047-04:00", "main_image": { "id": 393878, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a013200/a013282/parkerscience.thumb.jpg", "filename": "parkerscience.thumb.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "Music Credit: Smooth as Glass by The Freeharmonic OrchestraWatch this video on the NASA Goddard YouTube channel.Complete transcript available.", "width": 1920, "height": 1080, "pixels": 2073600 } }, { "id": 12911, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12911/", "page_type": "Produced Video", "title": "Parker Solar Probe Trailer", "description": "Trailer without text introduction. 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Music credit: Luminous Skies [Underscore] by Andrew Prahlow from www.killertracks.comComplete transcript available.Watch this video on the NASA Goddard YouTube channel.", "width": 1024, "height": 576, "pixels": 589824 } }, { "id": 12978, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12978/", "page_type": "Produced Video", "title": "Parker Solar Probe--Mission Overview", "description": "Parker Solar Probe will swoop to within 4 million miles of the sun's surface, facing heat and radiation like no spacecraft before it. Launching in 2018, Parker Solar Probe will provide new data on solar activity and make critical contributions to our ability to forecast major space-weather events that impact life on Earth.In order to unlock the mysteries of the corona, but also to protect a society that is increasingly dependent on technology from the threats of space weather, we will send Parker Solar Probe to touch the Sun.In 2017, the mission was renamed for Eugene Parker, the S. Chandrasekhar Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus, Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics at the University of Chicago. In the 1950s, Parker proposed a number of concepts about how stars—including our Sun—give off energy. He called this cascade of energy the solar wind, and he described an entire complex system of plasmas, magnetic fields, and energetic particles that make up this phenomenon. Parker also theorized an explanation for the superheated solar atmosphere, the corona, which is – contrary to what was expected by physics laws -- hotter than the surface of the sun itself. 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How NASA's Solar Probe will Survive the Sun", "description": "Music credit: Cheeky Chappy [Main Track] by Jimmy Kaleth, Ross Andrew McLean from www.killertracks.com This music requires a license for use.Watch this video on the NASA Goddard YouTube channel.Complete transcript available. || meltthumb.jpg (1920x1080) [311.2 KB] || meltthumb_searchweb.png (320x180) [76.6 KB] || meltthumb_thm.png (80x40) [5.4 KB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8.mov (1920x1080) [5.4 GB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8.webm (1920x1080) [23.3 MB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8_appletv.m4v (1280x720) [148.8 MB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8_youtube_1080.mp4 (1920x1080) [443.5 MB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8_youtube_hq.mov (1920x1080) [1.3 GB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8_appletv_subtitles.m4v (1280x720) [148.9 MB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8.en_US.srt [4.2 KB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8.en_US.vtt [4.2 KB] || 12867WhyWontItMeltV8_ipod_sm.mp4 (320x240) [38.2 MB] || ", "release_date": "2018-07-19T15:00:00-04:00", "update_date": "2023-05-03T13:46:37.467124-04:00", "main_image": { "id": 406488, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a012800/a012867/meltthumb.jpg", "filename": "meltthumb.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "Music credit: Cheeky Chappy [Main Track] by Jimmy Kaleth, Ross Andrew McLean from www.killertracks.com This music requires a license for use.Watch this video on the NASA Goddard YouTube channel.Complete transcript available.", "width": 1920, "height": 1080, "pixels": 2073600 } }, { "id": 4668, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4668/", "page_type": "Infographic", "title": "Mind-Melting Facts About the Sun", "description": "Image of poster. See link below for PDF version. || MM_FATS_Infographic_w_NASA_ID_print.jpg (1024x1481) [343.3 KB] || MM_FATS_Infographic_w_NASA_ID.jpg (2966x4291) [1.7 MB] || MM_FATS_Infographic_w_NASA_ID.png (2966x4291) [10.3 MB] || MM_FATS_Infographic_w_NASA_ID_searchweb.png (320x180) [100.6 KB] || MM_FATS_Infographic_w_NASA_ID_thm.png (80x40) [6.6 KB] || Fascinating Facts about the Sun. || ", "release_date": "2018-07-12T00:00:00-04:00", "update_date": "2023-05-03T13:46:38.796551-04:00", "main_image": { "id": 402122, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a004600/a004668/MM_FATS_Infographic_w_NASA_ID_print.jpg", "filename": "MM_FATS_Infographic_w_NASA_ID_print.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "Image of poster. See link below for PDF version.", "width": 1024, "height": 1481, "pixels": 1516544 } } ], "sources": [ { "id": 4560, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4560/", "page_type": "Visualization", "title": "Alfvén Waves - Basic", "description": "Alfven waves represented by undulation in the magnetic field vector. || AlfvenWaveBasic_staticXwide_inertial.HD1080i.0300_print.jpg (1024x576) [158.5 KB] || AlfvenWaveBasic_staticXwide_inertial.HD1080i.0300_thm.png (80x40) [4.6 KB] || AlfvenWaveBasic_staticXwide_inertial.HD1080i.0300_web.png (320x180) [71.9 KB] || frames/1920x1080_16x9_30p/WavesOnly/ (1920x1080) [128.0 KB] || AlfvenWaveBasic_staticXwide.HD1080i_p30.mp4 (1920x1080) [34.0 MB] || AlfvenWaveBasic_staticXwide.HD1080i_p30.webm (1920x1080) [4.9 MB] || ", "release_date": "2017-03-31T09:00:00-04:00", "update_date": "2023-05-03T13:47:47.746075-04:00", "main_image": { "id": 415648, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a004500/a004560/AlfvenWaveParticles.Basic.MediumGyro.vzAlfvenDG4_staticXclose_inertial.HD1080i.0200_print.jpg", "filename": "AlfvenWaveParticles.Basic.MediumGyro.vzAlfvenDG4_staticXclose_inertial.HD1080i.0200_print.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "A closeup view of the particles from the movie above.", "width": 1024, "height": 576, "pixels": 589824 } }, { "id": 4561, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4561/", "page_type": "Visualization", "title": "Alfvén Waves - Kinetic", "description": "Kinetic Alfven waves represented by undulation in the magnetic field vector. || AlfvenWaveKinetic_staticXwide_inertial.HD1080i.0300_print.jpg (1024x576) [155.7 KB] || frames/1920x1080_16x9_30p/WavesOnly/ (1920x1080) [128.0 KB] || AlfvenWaveKinetic_staticXwide.HD1080i_p30.mp4 (1920x1080) [37.9 MB] || AlfvenWaveKinetic_staticXwide.HD1080i_p30.webm (1920x1080) [4.9 MB] || ", "release_date": "2017-03-31T09:00:00-04:00", "update_date": "2023-05-03T13:47:47.923234-04:00", "main_image": { "id": 415660, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a004500/a004561/AlfvenWaveParticles.Kinetic.MediumGyro.vzAlfvenDG4_staticXclose_inertial.HD1080i.0200_print.jpg", "filename": "AlfvenWaveParticles.Kinetic.MediumGyro.vzAlfvenDG4_staticXclose_inertial.HD1080i.0200_print.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "Same as movie above, but no background grid.", "width": 1024, "height": 576, "pixels": 589824 } }, { "id": 20233, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/20233/", "page_type": "Animation", "title": "Solar Eclipse Animation", "description": "Solar Eclipse Animation || Solar_eclipseHD_00840_print.jpg (1024x576) [42.6 KB] || Solar_eclipseHD_00840_searchweb.png (180x320) [45.3 KB] || Solar_eclipseHD_00840_thm.png (80x40) [4.5 KB] || Solar_eclipse_prores.mov (1920x1080) [1.0 GB] || Solar_eclipse_h264.mov (1920x1080) [1.0 GB] || Solar_eclipse4K_h264.mov (2000x2000) [316.9 MB] || frames/1920x1080_16x9_60p/ (1920x1080) [128.0 KB] || Solar_eclipseHD.mp4 (1920x1080) [4.5 MB] || Solar_eclipse_prores.webm (1920x1080) [3.3 MB] || Solar_eclipse4K_prores.mov (3840x2160) [3.7 GB] || frames/3840x2160_16x9_60p/ (3840x2160) [128.0 KB] || Solar_eclipse4K_prores_30fps.mp4 (3840x2160) [11.8 MB] || eclipse.en_US.srt [372 bytes] || eclipse.en_US.vtt [386 bytes] || ", "release_date": "2016-03-03T13:00:00-05:00", "update_date": "2024-04-02T00:19:41.710282-04:00", "main_image": { "id": 426392, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a020000/a020200/a020233/Solar_eclipseHD_00840_print.jpg", "filename": "Solar_eclipseHD_00840_print.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "Solar Eclipse Animation", "width": 1024, "height": 576, "pixels": 589824 } }, { "id": 30081, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/30081/", "page_type": "Hyperwall Visual", "title": "Stereo Captures Eruption and CME", "description": "On May 1, 2013, NASA's Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory Ahead (STEREO-A) satellite along with its twin STEREO Behind (STEREO-B), observed an active region (right) of the sun erupt. This eruption, called a coronal mass ejection, or CME, sent plasma streaming out through the solar system. STEREO has an extreme ultraviolet camera similar to the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) satellite, but it also has coronagraph telescopes like the European Space Agency/NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) where the bright sun is blocked by a disk so it does not overpower the fainter solar atmosphere. As a result, using its two inner coronagraphs, STEREO was able to track the CME from the solar surface out to 6.3 million miles. || ", "release_date": "2013-10-10T00:00:00-04:00", "update_date": "2023-11-14T00:23:12.246113-05:00", "main_image": { "id": 428519, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a030000/a030000/a030081/prom_stereo_cme_may13_1280x720_print.jpg", "filename": "prom_stereo_cme_may13_1280x720_print.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "Prominence eruption and CME captured by STEREO on May 1, 2013.", "width": 1024, "height": 576, "pixels": 589824 } }, { "id": 4061, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4061/", "page_type": "Visualization", "title": "Solar Close-ups with Hinode's Solar Optical Telescope", "description": "A collection of movies generated from the Solar Optical Telescope (SOT) of the JAXA/NASA Hinode mission. || ", "release_date": "2013-04-16T00:00:00-04:00", "update_date": "2023-11-14T00:04:06.722611-05:00", "main_image": { "id": 466967, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a004000/a004061/LimbCaIIHline_20061109_stand.2Kx1K.00010.jpg", "filename": "LimbCaIIHline_20061109_stand.2Kx1K.00010.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "A view of the limb of the Sun, in the H-line of singly-ionized calcium. A sunspot is visible as are many spicules (the grass-like wavy things).", "width": 2048, "height": 1024, "pixels": 2097152 } }, { "id": 20193, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/20193/", "page_type": "Animation", "title": "Curiosity Rover Shakes, Bakes, and Tastes Mars with SAM", "description": "NASA's Curiosity rover analyzed its first solid sample of Mars with a variety of instruments, including the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite. Developed at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., SAM is a portable chemistry lab tucked inside the Curiosity rover. SAM examines the chemistry of samples it ingests, checking particularly for chemistry relevant to whether an environment can support or could have supported life. Learn more about how SAM processes samples by watching this video! || ", "release_date": "2012-12-03T12:00:00-05:00", "update_date": "2023-05-03T13:52:33.911919-04:00", "main_image": { "id": 470162, "url": "https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a020000/a020100/a020193/sam_2012_agu_short_ipod_lg01702_print.jpg", "filename": "sam_2012_agu_short_ipod_lg01702_print.jpg", "media_type": "Image", "alt_text": "Learn more about how SAM analyzes Martian samples by watching this video!", "width": 1024, "height": 576, "pixels": 589824 } } ], "products": [], "newer_versions": [], "older_versions": [], "alternate_versions": [] }